GRAMMAR

1. This book deals with Old Icelandic in its classical period, between 1200 and 1350.

PRONUNCIATION

2. The Icelandic alphabet was founded on the Latin, with the addition of þ and ð , and of the modified letters ę , ǫ , ø , which last is in this book written ö , ǫ̈ .

Vowels

3. The vowel-letters had nearly the same values as in Old English. Long vowels were often marked by (´). In this book long vowels are regularly marked by (¯)[1]. The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):—

[Footnote 1: Note that the longs of ę , ö are written æ , œ , respectively.]

a as in mann (G.) halda ( hold ) ā " father rāð ( advice ) e " été (F.) gekk ( went ) ē[2] . . . lēt (let pret. ) ę " men męnn ( men )

[Footnote 2: Where no keyword is given for a long vowel, its sound is that of the corresponding short vowel lengthened.]

æ as in there sær ( sea ) i " fini (F.) mikill ( great ) ī . . . lītill ( little ) o " beau (F.) orð ( word ) ō . . . tōk ( look ) ǫ " not hǫnd ( hand ) ö " peu (F.) kömr ( comes ) œ . . . fœra ( bring ) ǫ̈ " peur (F.) gǫ̈ra ( make ) u " sou (F.) upp ( up ) ū . . . hūs ( house ) y " tu (F.) systir ( sister ) ȳ . . . lȳsa ( shine ) au " haus (G.) lauss ( loose ) ei = ę + i bein ( bone ) ey = ę + y leysa ( loosen )

4. The unaccented i in systir , etc. (which is generally written e in the MSS.) probably had the sound of y in pity , which is really between i and e . The unacc. u in fōru (they went), etc. (which is generally written o in the MSS.) probably had the sound of oo in good .

Note that several of the vowels go in pairs of close and open , thus:

close : e ē o ō ö œ open : ę æ ǫ - ǫ̈ -

Consonants

5. Double consonants followed by a vowel must be pronounced really double, as in Italian. Thus the kk in drekka (to drink) must be pronounced like the kc in bookcase , while the k in dręki (dragon) is single, as in booking . When final (or followed by another cons.) double conss. are pronounced long, as in munn (mouth acc. ), hamarr (hammer nom. ), steinn (stone nom. ), distinguished from mun (will vb. ), and the accusatives hamar , stein .

6. k and g had a more front (palatal) sound before the front vowels e , ę , i , ö , ǫ̈ , y , and their longs, as also before j , as in kęnna (known), keyra (drive), gǫ̈ra (make), liggja (lie).

7. kkj , ggj were probably pronounced simply as double front kk , gg , the j not being pronounced separately.

8. *f* had initially the sound of our f , medially and finally that of v , as in gefa (give), gaf (gave), except of course in such combinations as ft , where it had the sound of f .

9. *g* was a stopped (back or front—guttural or palatal) cons. initially and in the combination ng , the two g 's in ganga (go) being pronounced as in go . It had the open sound of G. g in sagen medially before the back vowels a , o , ǫ , u , and all conss. except j , and finally:— saga (tale), dǫgum (with days); sagði (he said); lag (he lay). Before the front vowels and j it had the sound of G. g in liegen , or nearly that of j (our y ), as in sęgir (says), sęgja (to say).

10. Before voiceless conss. ( t , s ) g seems to have been pronounced k , as in sagt (said), dags (day's).

11. The g was always sounded in the combination ng , as in single , not as in singer .

12. *h* was sounded before j in such words as hjarta (heart) much as in E. hue (= hjū). hl , hn , hr , hv probably represented voiceless l , n , r , w respectively, hv being identical with E. wh : hlaupa (leap), hnīga (bend), hringr (ring), hvat (what).

13. *j* is not distinguished from i in the MSS. It had the sound of E. y in young : jǫrð (earth), sętja (to set).

14. *p* in pt probably had the sound of f : lopt (air).

15. *r* was always a strong point trill, as in Scotch.

16. *s* was always sharp.

17. *v* (which was sometimes written u and w ) had the sound of E. w : vel (well), hǫggva (hew).

18. *z* had the sound of ts : bęztr (best).

19. *þ* and *ð* were used promiscuously in the older MS., the very oldest using þ almost exclusively. In Modern Icelandic þ is written initially to express the sound of E. hard th , ð medially and finally to express that of soft th ; as there can be no doubt that this usage corresponds with the old pronunciation, it is retained in this book: þing (parliament), faðir (father), við (against). In such combinations as pð the ð must of course be pronounced þ .

Stress

20. The stress (accent) is always on the first syllable.

PHONOLOGY

Vowels

21. The vowels are related to one another in different ways, the most important of which are mutation (umlaut), fracture (brechung), and gradation (ablaut).

Mutation

22. The following changes are *i*-mutations (caused by an older i or j following, which has generally been dropped)[3]:

[Footnote 3: Many of the i 's which appear in derivative and inflectional syllables are late weakenings of a and other vowels, as in bani (death) = Old English bana ; these do not cause mutation.]

*a* (*ǫ*) … *ę* :— mann (man acc. ), męnn (men); hǫnd (hand), hęndr (hands).

*ā* … *æ* :— māl (speech), mæla (speak).

*e* (*ja*, *jǫ*) … *i* :— verðr (worth), virða (estimate).

*u* (*o*) … *y* :— fullr (full), fylla (to fill); lopt (air), lypta (lift).

*ū* … *ȳ* :— brūn (eyebrow), pl. brȳnn .

*o* … *ö* :— koma (to come), kömr (comes).

*ō* … *œ* :— fōr (went), fœra (bring).

*au* … *ey* :— lauss (loose), leysa (loosen).

*jū* (*jō*) … *ȳ* :— sjūkr (sick), sȳki (sickness); ljōsta (strike), lȳstr (strikes).

23. The change of a into ę is sometimes the result of a following k , g , or ng , as in dęgi dat. sg. of dagr (day), tękinn (taken), gęnginn (gone), inf. taka , ganga . i appears instead of e , and u instead of o before a nasal followed by another cons.: cp. binda (to bind), bundinn (bound) with bresta (burst) ptc. prt. brostinn .

24. There is also a *u*-mutation, caused by a following u , which has often been dropped:

*a* … *ǫ* :— dagr (day) dat. pl. dǫgum ; land (land) pl. lǫnd .

25. Unaccented ǫ becomes u , as in sumur pl. of sumar (summer), kǫlluðu (they called), infin. kalla .

Fracture

26. The only vowel that is affected by fracture is e : when followed by original a it becomes ja , when followed by original u it becomes jǫ , as in jarðar gen. of jǫrð (earth)[4]. When followed by original i , the e is, of course, mutated to i , as in skildir plur. nom. of skjǫldr (shield), gen. skjaldar .

[Footnote 4: Cp. German erde .]

Gradation

27. By gradation the vowels are related as follows:—

*a* … *ō* :— fara (go) pret. fōr , whence by mut. fœra (bring).

*e* (i, ja) … *a* … *u* (o) :— bresta (burst), prt. brast , prt. pl. brustu , ptc. prt. brostinn ; finna (find), fundinn (found ptc. ), fundr (meeting).

*e* … *a* … *ā* … *o* :— stela (steal), prt. stal , prt. pl. stālu , ptc. prt. stolinn .

*e* … *a* … *ā* … *e* :— gefa (give), gaf (he gave), gāfu (they gave), gefinn (given), gjǫf (gift), u -fracture of gef- , gæfa (luck) mut. of gāf- .

*ī* … *ei* … *i* :— skīna (shine), skein (he shone), skinu (they shone). sōl-skin (sunshine).

*jū* (jō) … *au* … *u* … *o* :— ljūga (tell a lie), prt. laug , prt. pl. lugu , ptc. prt. loginn . lygi (lie sbst. ) mut. of lug- . skjōta (shoot), skjōtr (swift), skotinn (shot ptc. ), skot (shot subst. ).

Other changes

28. All final vowels are long in accented syllables: þā (then), nū (now).

29. Inflectional and derivative vowels are often dropt after long accented vowels: cp. ganga (to go) with fā (to get), the dat. plurals knjām (knees) with hūsum (houses).

30. Vowels are often lengthened before l + cons.: hālfr (half adj. ), fōlk (people); cp. fōlginn (hidden) with brostinn (burst ptc. ).

Consonants

31. v is dropped before o and u : vaxa (to grow), prt. ōx , vinna (to win), unninn (won ptc. ), svelta (to starve), soltinn (starved, hungry).

Final r is often assimilated to a preceding cons.

32. *-lr , *-nr , *-sr always become -ll , -nn , -ss after a long vowel or diphthong, as in stōll (chair nom. ), acc. stōl , steinn (stone nom. ), acc. stein , vīss (wise masc. nom. sg. ), vīs fem. nom. sg., and in unacc. syllables, as in the masc. sg. nominatives mikill (great), fem. mikil , borinn (carried), fem. borin , ȳmiss (various) fem. ȳmis .

33. Words in which l , n , r , s are preceded by a cons. drop the r entirely, as in the masc. nominatives jarl (earl), hrafn (raven), vitr (wise), þurs (giant), lax (salmon).

34. If l and n are preceded by a short accented vowel, the r is generally kept, as in stelr (steals), vinr , (friend), sr becoming ss , as elsewhere.

35. r is kept after ll , and generally after nn , as in the masc. nom. allr (all), and in bręnnr (burns).

36. z often stands for ðs as well as ts , as in þēr þykkizk (ye seem) = *þykkið-sk , Vest-firzkr (belonging to the West Firths) = -*firðskr ( fǫrðr , firth).

37. Inflectional t is generally doubled after a long accented vowel: fār (few) neut. fātt (cp. allr 'all,' neut. allt ), sā (I saw), sātt 'thou sawest.'

INFLECTIONS

Nouns

38. *Gender*. There are three genders in Icelandic—masculine, feminine, and neuter. The gender is partly natural, partly grammatical, generally agreeing with the gender in Old English. Compound words follow the gender of their last element.

39. *Strong and Weak*. All weak nouns end in a vowel in the nom. sg. and in most of the other cases as well. Most strong nouns end in a cons. in the nom. sg.

40. *Cases*. There are four cases—nominative, accusative, dative, genitive. All nouns (except a few contractions) have the gen. pl. in -a ( fiska , of fishes), and the dat. pl. in -um ( fiskum ). All strong masculines ( fiskr ) and some strong feminines ( brūðr , bride) take r [5] in the nom. sg. Most strong feminines show the bare root in the nom. sg. with u -mutation, if possible ( āst , favour, fǫr , journey). The nom. pl. of all strong masc. and fem. nouns ends in r ( fiskar , āstir ). The acc. pl. of fem. nouns is the same as the nom. pl. ( āstir ). The acc. pl. of masc. strong nouns always ends in a vowel ( fiska ). The plur. nom. and acc. of neuters is the same as the sing. nom. and acc., except that in the plur. nom. and acc. they take u -mutation, if possible ( hūs , houses, lǫnd , lands).

[Footnote 5: Subject, of course, to the assimilations described above.]

41. The declensions are most conveniently distinguished by the acc. plur.

Strong Masculines

(1) a-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. fisk-r ( fish ) fisk-ar Acc. fisk fisk-a Dat. fisk-i fisk-um Gen. fisk-s fisk-a

42. So also heimr (home, world); konungr (king); Þōrr (Thor), acc. Þōr , gen. Þōrs ; steinn (stone), acc. stein , gen. steins , pl. nom. steinar ; hrafn (raven), acc. hrafn , pl. nom. hrafnar ; þurs (giant), acc. gen. þurs , pl. nom. þursar .

43. Dissyllables in -r , -l , -n generally throw out the preceding vowel before a vowel-inflection: hamarr (hammer), dat. hamri ; jǫtunn (giant), pl. nom. jǫtnar . kętill (kettle) and lykill (key) show unmutated vowels in the contracted forms, as in the acc. plur. katla , lukla .

44. Some nouns of this decl. take -ar in the gen. sing., especially proper names, such as Hākon , gen. Hākonar .

45. Some nouns add v before vowels: sær (sea), gen. sævar .

46. The dat. sometimes drops the i : sæ (sea), Þōr . dagr (day) mutates its vowel in the dat. dęgi .

47. Nouns in -ir keep the i in the sing., and drop it in the plur.:

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. hęlli-r ( cave ) hęll-ar Acc. hęlli hęll-a Dat. hęlli hęll-um Gen. hęlli-s hęll-a

48. So also a number of proper names, such as Skrȳmir , Þōrir .

(2) i-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. stað-r ( place ) stað-ir Acc. stað stað-i Dat. stað stǫð-um Gen. stað-ar stað-a

49. So also gripr (precious thing), salr (hall).

50. gęstr (guest) takes -i in the dat. sg., and -s in the gen. sg.

51. Those ending in g or k (together with some others) insert j before a and u : bękkr (bench), bękk , bękk , bękkjar ; bękkir , bękki , bękkjum , bękkja . So also męrgr (marrow), stręngr (string).

(3) u-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. skjǫld-r ( shield ) skild-ir Acc. skjǫld skjǫld-u Dat. skild-i skjǫld-um Gen. skjald-ar skjald-a

52. So also vǫndr (twig), vǫllr (plain), viðr (wood). āss (god) has plur. nom. æsir , acc. āsu . sonr (son) has dat. sg. syni , plur. nom. synir . It regularly drops its r of the nom. in such compounds as Tryggva-son (son of Tryggvi).

(4) r-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. fōt-r ( foot ) fœt-r Acc. fōt fœt-r Dat. fœt-i fōt-um Gen. fōt-ar fōt-a

53. So also fingr (finger), gen. fingrar , pl. fingr ; vetr (winter), pl. vetr . maðr (man) is irregular: maðr , mann , manni , manns ; męnn , męnn , mǫnnum , manna .

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. faðir ( father ) fęðr Acc. fǫður fęðr Dat. fǫður fęðrum Gen. fǫður fęðra

54. So also brōðir (brother), pl. brœðr .

55. Pres. participles used as nouns follow this decl. in the pl., following the weak class in the sg.:

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. bōndi ( yeoman ) bœndr Acc. bōnda bœndr Dat. bōnda bōndum Gen. bōnda bōnda

56. So also frœndi (kinsman), pl. frœndr .

Strong Neuters

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. skip ( ship ) skip Acc. skip skip Dat. skip-i skip-um Gen. skip-s skip-a

57. So also orð (word), land (land) pl. lǫnd , sumar (summer) pl. sumur (§ 25).

58. męn (necklace), kyn (race), grey (dog) insert j before a and u : greyjum . hǫgg (stroke) inserts v before a vowel: hǫggvi . knē (knee), knē , knē , knēs ; knē , knē , kjām , knjā . So also trē (tree).

59. fē (money) is contracted: gen. fjār , dat. fē .

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. kvæði ( poem ) kvæði Acc. kvæði kvæði Dat. kvæði kvæðum Gen. kvæði-s kvæða

60. So also klæði (cloth). Those in k insert j before a and u : męrki (mark), męrkjum , męrkja . So also rīki (sovereignty).

Strong Feminines

(1) ar-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. gjǫf ( gift ) gjaf-ar Acc. gjǫf gjaf-ar Dat. gjǫf gjǫf-um Gen. gjaf-ar gjaf-a

61. So also mǫn (mane), gjǫrð (girdle), ār (oar).

62. ā (river) contracts: ā , ā , ā , ār ; ār , ār , ām , ā .

63. Many take -u in the dat. sg.: kęrling (old woman), kęrling , kęrlingu , kęrlingar ; kęrlingar , kęrlingar , kęrlingum , kęrlinga . So also laug (bath).

64. Those with a mutated root-vowel (or i ) insert j in inflection: ey (island), ey , eyju , eyjar ; eyjar , eyjar , eyjum , eyja . So also Frigg , Hęl . mær (maid), mey , meyju , meyjar ; meyjar , meyjar , meyjum , meyja .

65.

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. heið-r ( heath ) heið-ar Acc. heið-i heið-ar Dat. heið-i heið-um Gen. heið-ar heið-a

(2) ir-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. tīð tīð-ir Acc. tīð tīð-ir Dat. tīð tīð-um Gen. tīð-ar tīð-a

66. So also sorg (sorrow), skipun (arrangement), hǫfn (harbour) pl. hafnir , and the majority of strong feminines.

67. Many have -u in the dat. sg.: sōl (sun), sōl , sōlu , sōlar ; sōlir , sōlir , sōlum , sōla . So also jǫrð (earth), stund (period of time).

68. One noun has r in the nom. sg., following heiðr in the sg.: brūðr (bride), brūði , brūði , brūðar ; brūðir , brūðir , brūðum , brūða .

(3) r-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. bōk ( book ) bœk-r Acc. bōk bœk-r Dat. bōk bōk-um Gen. bōk-ar bōk-a

69. So also nātt (night) pl. nætr , bōt (compensation) pl. bœtr , tǫnn (tooth) gen. tannar pl. tęnnr .

70. hǫnd (hand) pl. hęndr has dat. sg. hęndi .

71. kȳr (cow) has acc. kū , pl. kȳr .

72. brūn (eyebrow) assimilates the r of the pl.: brȳnn .

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. mōðir ( mother ) mœðr Acc. mōður mœðr Dat. mōður mœðrum Gen. mōður mœðra

73. So also dōttir (daughter) pl. dœtr ; systir (sister) pl. systr .

Weak Masculines

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. bog-i ( bow ) bog-ar Acc. bog-a bog-a Dat. bog-a bog-um Gen. bog-a bog-a

74. So also māni (moon), fēlagi (companion).

75. hǫfðingi (chief) and some others insert j in inflection: hǫfðingja , hǫfðingjar , hǫfðingjum .

76. lē (scythe) is contracted; its gen. sg. is ljā .

77. oxi (ox) has pl. öxn .

78. herra (lord) is indeclinable in the sg.

Weak Neuters

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. hjart-a ( heart ) hjǫrt-u Acc. hjart-a hjǫrt-u Dat. hjart-a hjǫrt-um Gen. hjart-a hjart-na

79. So also auga (eye).

Weak Feminines

SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. tung-a ( tongue ) tung-ur Acc. tung-u tung-ur Dat. tung-u tung-um Gen. tung-u tung-na

80. So also stjarna (star) pl. stjǫrnur , kirkja (church), gen. plurals stjarna , kirkna .

Sg. Nom. ęlli ( old age ) Acc. ęlli Dat. ęlli Gen. ęlli

81. So also glęði (joy) and many abstract nouns.

82. lygi (falsehood) has pl. lygar ; so also gǫ̈rsimi (precious thing).

Adjectives

83. Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak forms.

Strong Adjectives

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. ung-r ( young ) ung-t ung
Acc. ung-an ung-t ung-a
Dat. ung-um ung-u ung-ri
Gen. ung-s ung-s ung-rar

Pl. Nom. ung-ir ung ung-ar
Acc. ung-a ung ung-ar
Dat. ung-um ung-um ung-um
Gen. ung-ra ung-ra ung-ra

84. So also fagr (fair), fem. fǫgr , neut. fagrt .

85. Some insert j before a and u : nȳr (new), nȳjum , nȳjan .

86. Some insert v before a vowel: hār (high), hāvan , dökkr (dark), dökkvir , kykr (alive), kykvir .

87. The t of the neut. is doubled after a long vowel: nȳtt , hātt . Monosyllables in ð , dd , tt form their neut. in -tt : breiðr (broad), breitt ; leiddr (led), leitt . gōðr (good) has neut. gott . sannr (true) has neut. satt . In unaccented syllables or if a cons. precedes, tt is shortened to t : kallaðr (called), kallat ; blindr (blind), blint , harðr (hard), hart , fastr (firm), fast .

88. l and n assimilate a following r : gamall (old), fem. gǫmul , fem. acc. gamla , dat. gamalli . vǣnn (beautiful), gen. pl. vænna .

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. mikill ( great ) mikit mikil
Acc. mikinn mikit mikla
Dat. miklum miklu mikilli
Gen. mikils mikils mikillar

Pl. Nom. miklir mikil miklar
Acc. mikla mikil miklar
Dat. miklum miklum miklum
Gen. mikilla mikilla mikilla

89. So also lītill (little).

90. Dissyllables in -inn have -it in the neut., and -inn in the masc. sg. acc.: tīginn (distinguished), tīgit , tīginn , pl. tīgnīr . So also kominn (come).

91.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. annarr ( other ) annat ǫnnur
Acc. annan annat aðra
Dat. ǫðrum ǫðru annarri
Gen. annars annars annarrar

Pl. Nom. aðrir ǫnnur aðrar
Acc. aðra ǫnnur aðrar
Dat. ǫðrum ǫðrum ǫðrum
Gen. annarra annarra annarra

Weak Adjectives

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. ung-i ung-a ung-a
Acc. ung-a ung-a ung-u
Dat. ung-a ung-a ung-u
Gen. ung-a ung-a ung-u

Pl. Nom. ung-u ung-u ung-u
Acc. ung-u ung-u ung-u
Dat. ung-u ung-u ung-u
Gen. ung-u ung-u ung-u

92. So also fagri , hāvi , mikli , etc.

Sg. Nom. yngri ( younger ) yngra yngri
Acc. yngra yngra yngri
Dat. yngra yngra yngri
Gen. yngra yngra yngri

Pl. Nom. yngri yngri yngri
Acc. yngri yngri yngri
Dat. yngrum yngrum yngrum
Gen. yngri yngri yngri

93. So also all comparatives, such as meiri (greater), and pres. partic. when used as adjectives, such as gefandi (giving), dat. pl. gefǫndum .

Comparison

94. (1) with -ari , -astr : rīkr (powerful), rīkari , rīkastr ; gǫfugr (distinguished), gǫfgari , gǫfgastr .

95. (2) with -ri , -str and mutation: langr (long), lęngri , lęngstr ; stōrr (big), stœrri , stœrstr ; ungr (young), yngri , yngstr .

96. The following are irregular:

gamall ( old ) ęllri ęlztr gōðr ( good ) bętri bęztr illr ( bad ) vęrri vęrstr lītill ( little ) minni minstr margr ( many ) fleiri flestr mikill ( great ) meiri mestr

Numerals

97.

CARDINAL ORDINAL

1. einn ( one ) fyrstr ( first ) 2. tveir annarr 3. þrīr þriði 4. fjōrir fjōrði 5. fimm fimmti 6. sex sētti 7. sjau sjaundi 8. ātta ātti 9. nīu nīundi 10. tīu tīundi 11. ellifu ellifti 12. tōlf tōlfti 13. þrettān þrettāndi 14. fjōrtān 15. fimmtān 16. sextān 17. sjautān 18. ātjān 19. nītjān 20. tuttugu 21. einn ok tuttugu, etc. 30. þrīr tigir, etc. 100. tīu tigir 110. ellifu tigir 120. hundrað 1200. þūsund

einn is declined like other adjectives:—

98.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Nom. einn eitt ein Acc. einn eitt eina Dat. einum einu einni Gen. eins eins einnar

It also has a pl. einir , einar , ein ; gen. einna , etc. in the sense of 'some.'

The next three show various irregularities.

99.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Nom. tveir tvau tvær Acc. tvā tvau tvær Dat. tveim tveim tveim Gen. tvęggja tvęggja tvęggja

Similarly bāðir (both):

100.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Nom. bāðir bæði bāðar Acc. bāða bæði bāðar Dat. bāðum bāðum bāðum Gen. bęggja bęggja bęggja

101.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Nom. þrīr þrjū þrjār Acc. þrjā þrjū þrjār Dat. þrim þrim þrim Gen. þriggja þriggja þriggja

102.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Nom. fjōrir fjogur fjōrar Acc. fjōra fjogur fjōrar Dat. fjōrum fjōrum fjōrum Gen. fjogurra fjogurra fjogurra

103. The others are indeclinable up to þrīr tigir , etc.; the tigir being declined regularly as a plural strong u -masculine tigir , tigu , tigum , tiga .

104. hundrað is a strong neut.: tvau hundruð (240), tveim hundruðum , etc. It governs the gen. (as also does þūsund ): fimm hundruð gōlfa , 'five (six) hundred chambers.'

105. þūsund is a strong ir -feminine: tvær þūsundir (2400).

106. hundrað and þūsund are rarely = 100 and 1000.

107. Of the ordinals fyrstr and annarr (§ 91) are strong, the others weak adjectives. þriði inserts a j : þriðja , etc.

Pronouns

108.

Personal

Sg. Nom. ek ( I ) þū ( thou ) — Acc. mik þik sik ( oneself ) Dat. mēr þēr sēr Gen. mīn þīn sīn

Dual Nom. vit it — Acc. okkr ykkr sik Dat. okkr ykkr sēr Gen. okkar ykkar sīn

Pl. Nom. vēr ( we ) þēr ( ye ) — Acc. oss yðr sik ( oneselves ) Dat. oss yðr sēr Gen. vār yðar sīn

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. hann ( he ) þat ( it ) hon ( she )
Acc. hann þat hana
Dat. honum þvī hęnni
Gen. hans þess hęnnar

Pl. Nom. þeir ( they ) þau þær
Acc. þā þau þær
Dat. þeim þeim þeim
Gen. þeira þeira þeira

109. ek was often suffixed to its verb, especially in poetry, being sometimes added twice over: mætta-k (I might), sā-k-a-k (I saw not; a ='not'). So also þū : er-tu (art thou), skalt-u (shalt thou) = *skalt-tu .

Possessive

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. minn ( my ) mitt mīn
Acc. minn mitt mīna
Dat. mīnum mīnu minni
Gen. mīns mīns minnar

Pl. Nom. mīnir mīn mīnar
Acc. mīna mīn mīnar
Dat. mīnum mīnum mīnum
Gen. minna minna minna

110. So also þinn (thy), sinn (his, etc., reflexive).

111. vārr , vārt , vār (our) is regular: acc. masc. vārn , masc. plur. vārir , vāra , vārum , vārra , etc.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. yðarr ( your ) yðart yður
Acc. yðarn yðart yðra
Dat. yðrum yðru yðarri
Gen. yðars yðars yðarrar

Pl. Nom. yðrir yður yðrar
Acc. yðra yður yðrar
Dat. yðrum yðrum yðrum
Gen. yðarra yðarra yðarra

112. So also okkarr (our two) and ykkarr (your two).

113. hans (his), þess (its), hęnnar (her), and þeira (their) are indeclinable.

Demonstrative

114.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. sā ( that ) þat sū
Acc. þann þat þā
Dat. þeim þvī þeiri
Gen. þess þess þeirar

Pl. Nom. þeir þau þær
Acc. þā þau þær
Dat. þeim þeim þeim
Gen. þeira þeira þeira

115. hinn , hitt , hin (that) is inflected like minn (except that its vowel is short throughout): acc. masc. hinn , plur. masc. hinir , hina , hinum , hinna .

116.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. þessi ( this ) þetta þessi
Acc. þenna þetta þessa
Dat. þessum þessu þessi
Gen. þessa þessa þessar

Pl. Nom. þessir þessi þessar
Acc. þessa þessi þessar
Dat. þessum þessum þessum
Gen. þessa þessa þessa

Definite

The prefixed definite article is declined thus:

117.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. inn it in
Acc. inn it ina
Dat. inum inu inni
Gen. ins ins innar

Pl. Nom. inir in inar
Acc. ina in inar
Dat. inum inum inum
Gen. inna inna inna

118. When suffixed to its noun it undergoes various changes. In its monosyllabic forms it drops its vowel after a short (un-accented) vowel, as in auga-t (the eye), but keeps it after a long vowel, as in ā-in (the river), trē-it (the tree). The dissyllabic forms drop their initial vowel almost everywhere; not, however, after the -ar , -r , of the gen. sg., nor in męnninir (men, nom. ), męnn-ina (men, acc. ). The -m of the dat. pl. is dropped before the suffixed -num .

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. fiskr-inn skip-it gjǫf-in
Acc. fisk-inn skip-it gjǫf-ina
Dat. fiski-num skipi-nu gjǫf-inni
Gen. fisks-ins skips-ins gjafar-innar

Pl. Nom. fiskar-nir skip-in gjafar-nar
Acc. fiska-na skip-in gjafar-nar
Dat. fisku-num skipu-num gjǫfu-num
Gen. fiska-nna skipa-nna gjafa-nna

Sg. Nom. bogi-nn auga-t tunga-n
Acc. boga-nn auga-t tungu-na
Dat. boga-num auga-nu tungu-nni
Gen. boga-ns auga-ns tungu-nnar

Pl. Nom. bogar-nir augu-n tungur-nar
Acc. boga-na augu-n tungur-nar
Dat. bogu-num augu-num tungnu-num
Gen. boga-nna augna-nna tungna-nna

Relative

119. The ordinary relative pron. is the indeclinable er , often preceded by sā : sā er = he who, who, sū er who fem.

Interrogative

120. The neut. hvat has gen. hvess , dat. hvī , which last is chiefly used as an adverb = 'why.'

121.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. hvārr ( which hvārt hvār
of two )
Acc. hvārn hvārt hvāra
Dat. hvārum hvāru hvārri
Gen. hvārs hvārs hvārrar

Pl. Nom. hvārir hvār hvārar Acc. hvāra hvār hvārar Dat. hvārum hvārum hvārum Gen. hvārra hvārra hvārra

122.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. hvęrr ( which, hvęrt hvęr
who )
Acc. hvęrn hvęrt hvęrja
Dat. hvęrjum hvęrju hvęrri
Gen. hvęrs hvęrs hvęrrar

Pl. Nom. hvęrir hvęr hvęrjar Acc. hvęrja hvęr hvęrjar Dat. hvęrjum hvęrjum hvęrjum Gen. hvęrra hvęrra hvęrra

Indefinite

123. einn-hvęrr , eitthvęrt , einhvęr (some one) keeps an invariable ein- in the other cases, the second element being inflected as above.

124. sumr (some) is declined like an ordinary adjective.

125.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. nakkvarr nakkvat nǫkkur
( some )
Acc. nakkvarn nakkvat nakkvara
Dat. nǫkkurum nǫkkuru nakkvarri
Gen. nakkvars nakkvars nakkvarrar

Pl. Nom. nakkvarir nǫkkur nakkvarar Acc. nakkvara nǫkkur nakkvarar Dat. nǫkkurum nǫkkurum nǫkkurum Gen. nakkvarra nakkvarra nakkvarra

126.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

Sg. Nom. engi ( none, ekki engi
no )
Acc. engan ekki enga
Dat. engum engu engri
Gen. engis engis engrar

Pl. Nom. engir engi engar Acc. enga engi engar Dat. engum engum engum Gen. engra engra engra

127. In hvār-tvęggja (each of the two, both) the first element is declined as above, the second is left unchanged.

Verbs

128. There are two classes of verbs, strong and weak . Strong verbs are conjugated partly by means of gradation, weak verbs by adding ð ( d , t ).

129. The ð of the 2 pl. is dropt before þit (ye two) and þēr (ye): gefi þēr , gāfu þit .

130. There is a middle voice, which ends in -mk in the 1 pers. sg. and pl., the rest of the verb being formed by adding sk to the active endings, r being dropt, the resulting ts , ðs being written z (§ 36): kvezk (active kveðr 'says'), þu fekkzk ( fekkt 'gottest').

131. The following is the conjugation of the strong verb gefa (give), which will show those endings which are common to all verbs:

Active

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

Present sg. 1. gef gef-a 2. gef-r gef-ir 3. gef-r gef-i

pl. 1. gef-um gef-im
2. gef-ið gef-ið
3. gef-a gef-i

Preterite sg. 1. gaf gæf-a 2. gaf-t gæf-ir 3. gaf gæf-i

pl. 1. gāf-um gæf-im
2. gāf-uð gæf-ið
3. gāf-u gæf-i

Imperative sg. 2 gef; pl. 1 gef-um, 2 gef-ið. Participle pres. gef-andi; pret. gef-inn. Infin. gefa.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

Pres. sg. 1. gef-umk gef-umk 2. gef-sk gef-isk 3. gef-sk gef-isk

pl. 1. gef-umk gef-imk 2. gef-izk gef-izk 3. gef-ask gef-isk

Pret. sg. 1. gāf-umk gæf-umk 2. gaf-zk gæf-isk 3. gaf-sk gæf-isk

pl. 1. gāf-umk gæf-imk 2. gāf-uzk gæf-izk 3. gāf-usk gæf-isk

Impers. sg. 2 gef-sk; pl. 1 gef-umk, 2 gef-izk. Partic. pres. gef-andisk; pret. gef-izk neut. Infin. gef-ask.

Strong Verbs

132. In the strong verbs the plur. of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. The 1 sg. pret. of the middle voice always has the vowel of the pl. pret.: gāfumk . The pret. subj. has the vowel of the pret. indic. plur. mutated: skaut (he shot), skutu (they shot), skyti (he might shoot). But there is no mutation in verbs of the first conj.: hljōpi , inf. hlaupa (leap).

133. The pres. indic. sing. mutates the root-vowel in all three persons: ek skȳt , þū skȳtr , hann skȳtr , infin. skjōta (shoot). e however is not mutated: ek gef , þū gefr . The inflectional r is liable to the same modifications as the r of nouns (§ 32): skīnn , vęx , infin. skīna (shine), vaxa (grow).

134. Verbs in ld change the d into t in the 1, 3 sg. pret. indic. and in the imper. sg.: helt (held), halt (hold!), infin. halda . nd becomes tt , and ng becomes kk under the same conditions: binda (bind), ganga (go), pret. batt , gekk , imper. bitt , gakk .

135. The t of the 2 sg. pret. indic. is doubled after a long accented vowel: þū sātt (thou sawest). If the 1 sg. pret. indic. ends in t or ð , the 2 sg. ends in zt : lēt (I let), þū lēzt , bauð (I offered) þū bauzt .

136. There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the characteristic vowels of their preterites.

137.

I. 'Fall'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

falla ( fall ) fęllr fell fellu fallinn lāta ( let ) lætr lēt lētu lātinn rāða ( advise ) ræðr rēð rēðu rāðinn heita ( call ) heitr hēt hētu heitinn halda ( hold ) hęldr helt heldu haldinn ganga ( go ) gęngr gekk gengu gęnginn fā ( get ) fær fekk fengu fęnginn ————————- auka ( increase ) eykr jōk jōku aukinn būa ( dwell ) bȳr bjō bjoggu būinn hǫggva ( hew ) hǫggr hjō hjoggu hǫggvinn hlaupa ( leap ) hleypr hljōp hljōpu hlaupinn

138. The following have weak preterites in r :

grōa ( grow ) grœr gröri gröru grōinn rōa ( row ) rœr röri röru rōinn snūa ( twist ) snȳr snöri snöru snūinn

139. heita in the passive sense of 'to be named, called' has a weak present: ek heiti , þū heitir .

140.

II. 'Shake'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

fara ( go ) fęrr fōr fōru farinn grafa ( dig ) gręfr grōf grōfu grafinn hlaða ( load ) hlęðr hlōð hlōðu hlaðinn vaxa ( grow ) vęx ōx ōxu vaxinn standa ( stand ) stęndr stōð stōðu staðinn aka ( drive ) ękr ōk ōku ękinn taka ( take ) tękr tōk tōku tękinn draga ( draw ) dręgr drō drōgu dręginn flā ( flay ) flær flō flōgu flęginn slā ( strike ) slær slō slōgu slęginn

141. The following have weak presents:

hęfja ( lift ) hęfr hōf hōfu hafinn deyja ( die ) deyr dō dō dāinn hlæja ( laugh ) hlær hlō hlōgu hlęginn

142.

III. 'Bind'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bresta ( burst ) brestr brast brustu brostinn hverfa ( turn ) hverfr hvarf hurfu horfinn svelga ( swallow ) svelgr svalg sulgu sōlginn verða ( become ) verðr varð urðu orðinn skjālfa ( shake ) skelfr skalf skulfu skolfinn drekka ( drink ) drekkr drakk drukku drukkinn finna ( find ) finnr fann fundu fundinn vinna ( win ) vinnr vann unnu unninn binda ( bind ) bindr batt bundu bundinn springa ( spring ) springr sprakk sprungu sprunginn stinga ( pierce ) stingr stakk stungu stunginn bregða ( pull ) bregðr brā brugðu brugðinn sökkva ( sink ) sökkr sǫkk sukku sokkinn stökkva ( spring ) stökkr stǫkk stukku stokkinn

143. The following have weak presents (which makes however no difference in their conjugation):

bręnna ( burn ) bręnnr brann brunnu brunninn ręnna ( run ) ręnnr rann runnu runninn

144.

IV. 'Bear'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bera ( carry ) berr bar bāru borinn nema ( take ) nemr nam nāmu numinn fela ( hide ) felr fal fālu fōlginn koma ( come ) kömr kom kvāmu kominn sofa ( sleep ) söfr svaf svāfu sofinn

145.

V. 'Give'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

drepa ( kill ) drepr drap drāpu drepinn gefa ( give ) gefr gaf gāfu gefinn kveða ( say ) kveðr kvað kvāðu kveðinn meta ( estimate ) metr mat mātu metinn reka ( drive ) rekr rak rāku rekinn eta ( eat ) etr āt ātu etinn sjā ( see ) sēr[6] sā sā[7] sēnn

[Footnote 6: sē, sēr, sēr; sjām, sēð, sjā. Subj. sē, sēr, sē; sēm, sēð, sē.]

[Footnote 7: sām, sāið, sā.]

146. The following have weak presents:—

biðja ( ash ) biðr bað bāðu beðinn sitja ( sit ) sitr sat sātu setinn liggja ( lie ) liggr lā lāgum leginn þiggja ( receive ) þiggr þā þāgu þeginn

147.

VI. 'Shine'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bīta ( bite ) bītr beit bitu bitinn drīfa ( drive ) drīfr dreif drifu drifinn grīpa ( grasp ) grīpr greip gripu gripinn līða ( go ) līðr leið liðu liðinn līta ( look ) lītr leit litu litinn rīða ( ride ) rīðr reið riðu riðinn sīga ( sink ) sīgr seig sigu siginn slīta ( tear ) slītr sleit slitu slitinn stīga ( advance ) stīgr steig stigu stiginn bīða ( wait ) bīðr beið biðu beiðnn

148. The following has a weak present:

vīkja ( move ) vīkr veik viku vikinn

149.

VII. 'Choose'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bjōða ( offer ) bȳðr bauð buðu boðinn brjōta ( break ) brȳtr braut brutu brotinn fljōta ( float ) flȳtr flaut flutu flotinn hljōta ( receive ) hlȳtr hlaut hlutu hlotinn kjōsa ( choose ) kȳss kaus kusum kosinn njōta ( enjoy ) nȳtr naut nutu notinn skjōta ( shoot ) skȳtr skaut skutu skotinn drjūpa ( drop ) drȳpr draup drupu dropinn ljūga ( tell lies ) lȳgr laug lugu loginn lūka ( close ) lȳkr lauk luku lokinn lūta ( bend ) lȳtr laut lutu lotinn fljūga ( fly ) flȳgr flō flugu floginn

Weak Verbs

150. There are three conjugations of weak verbs. All those of the first conjugation have mutated vowels in the pres., and form their pret. with ð ( d , t ): heyra (hear), heyrða . Those of the second form their pret. in the same way, but have unmutated vowels in the pres.: hafa (have) hafða . Those of the third form their pret. in -aða : kalla (call), kallaða .

I. 'Hear'-conjugation

Active

151.

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

Pres. sg. 1. heyr-i heyr-a 2. heyr-ir heyr-ir 3. heyr-ir heyr-i

pl. 1. heyr-um heyr-im
2. heyr-ið heyr-ið
3. heyr-a heyr-i

Pret. sg. 1. heyr-ða heyr-ða 2. heyr-ðir heyr-ðir 3. heyr-ði heyr-ði

pl. 1. heyr-ðum heyr-ðim 2. heyr-ðuð heyr-ðið 3. heyr-ðu heyr-ði

Imper. sg. 1. heyr; pl. 1. heyr-um, 2. heyr-ið. Partic. pres. heyr-andi; pret. heyr-ðr. Infin. heyr-a.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

Pres. sg. 1. heyr-umk heyr-umk 2. heyr-isk heyr-isk 3. heyr-isk heyr-isk

pl. 1. heyr-umk heyr-imk 2. heyr-izk heyr-izk 3. heyr-ask heyr-isk

Pret. sg. 1. heyr-ðumk heyr-ðumk 2. heyr-ðisk heyr-ðisk 3. heyr-ðisk heyr-ðisk

pl. 1. heyr-ðumk heyr-ðimk 2. heyr-ðuzk heyr-ðizk 3. heyr-ðusk heyr-ðisk

Imper. sg. 2. heyr-sk; pl. 1. heyr-umk, 2. heyr-izk. Partic. pres. heyr-andisk; pret. heyr-zk neut. Infin. heyr-ask.

A. Without vowel-change

152. The inflectional ð becomes d after long syllables ending in l or n : sigla (sail), siglda ; nęfna (name), nęfnda , nęfndr .

153. -ðð becomes dd : leiða (lead), leidda .

154. ð after s and t becomes t : reisa (raise), reista ; mœta (meet), mœtta . Also in a few verbs in l , n : mæla (speak), mælta ; spęnna (buckle), spęnta .

155. After nd and pt it is dropped: sęnda (send), sęnda , sęndr ; lypta (lift), lypta .

156. It is preserved in such verbs as the following: dœma (judge), dœmða ; fœra (lead), fœrða ; hęrða (harden), hęrða ; hleypa (gallop), hleypða .

B. With vowel-change

157. All these verbs have j preceded by a short syllable (tęlja), or a long vowel without any cons. after it (dȳja), or gg (lęggja); the j being kept before a and u , as in the pres. ind. of spyrja (ask): spyr , spyrr , spyrr ; spyrjum , spyrið , spyrja , pres. subj. 1 sg. ek spyrja ; they unmutate their vowel in the pret. and ptc. pret. (spurða, spurðr), the mutation being restored in the pret. subj. spyrða , spyrðir , etc. The ptc. pret. often has an i before the ð .

bęrja ( strike ) barða barðr lęggja ( lay ) lagða lag(i)ðr tęlja ( tell ) talða tal(i)ðr vękja ( wake ) vakða vakðr flytja ( remove ) flutta fluttr dȳja ( shake ) dūða dūðr

158. The following keep the mutated vowel throughout:

sęlja ( sell ) sęlda sęldr sętja ( set ) sętta sęttr

C.

159. The following are irregular:

sœkja ( seek ) sōtta sōttr þykkja ( seem ) þōtta þōttr

Subj. pret. sœtta , þœtta .

160. The following has an adj. for its partic. pret.:

gǫ̈ra ( make ) gǫ̈rða gǫ̈rr.

II. 'Have'-conjugation

161. The few verbs of this class are conjugated like those of conj. I, except that some of them have imperatives in -i : vaki , þęfi ; uni . lifa , sęgja have imper. lif , sęg . They mutate the vowel of the pret. subj. (ynða). Their partic. pret. generally occurs only in the neut.; sometimes the a is dropped.

lifa ( live ) lifi lifða lifat una ( be contented ) uni unða unat skorta ( be wanting ) skorti skorta skort þola ( endure ) þoli þolða þolat þora ( dare ) þori þorða þorat nā ( attain ) nāi nāða nāðr, nāit

162. The following show mutation:

sęgja ( say ) sęgi sagða sagðr þęgja ( be silent ) þęgi þagða þagat hafa ( have ) hęfi hafða hafðr kaupa ( buy ) kaupi keypta keyptr

163. The present indic. of the first three is as follows:

Sing. 1. hęfi sęgi þęgi 2, 3. hęfir sęgir þęgir

Plur. 1. hǫfum sęgjum þęgjum 2. hafið sęgið þęgið 3. hafa sęgja þęgja

164. The rest of hafa is regular. Pres. subj. hafa , hafir , hafi ; hafim , hafið , hafi . Pret. indic. hafða , hafðir , hafði ; hǫfdum , hǫfðuð , hǫfðu . Pret. subj. hęfða , hęfðir , hęfði ; hęfðim , hęfðið , hęfði . Imper. haf , hǫfum , hafið . Ptc. hafandi , hafðr .

III. 'Call'-conjugation

Active

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

Pres. sg. 1. kall-a kall-a 2. kall-ar kall-ir 3. kall-ar kall-i

pl. 1. kǫll-um kall-im
2. kall-ið kall-ið
3. kall-a kall-i

Pres. sg. 1. kall-aða kall-aða 2. kall-aðir kall-aðir 3. kall-aði kall-aði

pl. 1. kǫll-uðum kall-aðim 2. kǫll-uðuð kall-aðið 3. kǫll-uðu kall-aði

Imper. sing. 2. kall-a; plur. 1. kǫll-um, 2. kall-ið. Partic. pres. kall-andi; pret. kallaðr ( neut. kallat). Infin. kalla.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

Pres. sg. 1. kǫll-umk kǫll-umk 2. kall-ask kall-isk 3. kall-ask kall-isk

pl. 1. kǫll-umk kall-imk 2. kall-izk kall-izk 3. kall-ask kall-isk

Pret. sg. 1. kǫll-uðumk kǫll-uðumk 2. kall-aðisk kall-aðisk 3. kall-aðisk kall-aðisk

pl. 1. kǫll-uðumk kall-aðimk 2. kǫll-uðuzk kall-aðizk 3. kǫll-uðusk kall-aðisk

Imper. sing. 2. kall-ask; pl. 1. kǫll-umk, 2. kall-izk. Partic. pres. kall-andisk; pret. kall-azk neut. Infin. kall-ask.

165. So also byrja (begin), hęrja (make war), vakna (awake).

Strong-Weak Verbs

166. These have old strong preterites for their presents, from which new weak preterites are formed.

INFIN. PRES. SG. PRES. PL. PRT. PTC.

eiga ( possess ) ā eigu ātta āttr kunna ( can ) kann kunnu kunna kunnat n. mega ( can ) mā megu mātta mātt n. muna ( remember ) man munu munða munat n. munu ( will ) mun munu munða —— skulu ( shall ) skal skulu skylda skyldr þurfa ( need ) þarf þurfu þurfta þurft n. unna ( love ) ann unnu unna unnt n. vita ( know ) veit vitu vissa vitaðr

167. Of these verbs munu and skulu have preterite infinitives: mundu , skyldu .

Anomalous Verbs

168. Vilja (will):

Present

Sing. Plur.

1. vil viljum 2. vill vilið 3. vill vilja

Subj. pres. vili. Pret. ind. vilda. Ptc. prt. viljat.

169. Vera (be):

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

Pres. sg. 1. em sē 2. ert sēr 3. er sē

pl. 1. erum sēm
2. eruð sēð
3. eru sē

Pret. sg. 1. var væra 2. vart værir 3. var væri

pl. 1. vārum værim 2. vāruð værið 3. vāru væri

Imper. sg. ver; pl. verið. Ptc. prt. verit n.

COMPOSITION

170. Composition with the genitive is very frequent in Icelandic. Thus by the side of skip-stjōrn (ship-steering) we find skips-brot (ship's breaking, shipwreck), skipa-hęrr (army of ships, fleet). Genitival composition often expresses possession, as in konungs-skip (king's ship).

DERIVATION

Prefixes

171. Prefixes are much less used in Icelandic than in Old English.

*al-* 'quite,' 'very': al-būinn 'quite ready,' al-snotr 'very clever.'

*all-* 'all,' 'very': all-valdr 'all-ruler, monarch,' all-harðr 'very hard,' all-stōrum 'very greatly.'

*and-* 'against': and-lit 'countenance' ( lita , look), and-svar 'answer.'

*fjǫl-* 'many': fjǫl-męnni 'multitude' ( maðr , man).

*mis-* 'mis-': mis-līka 'displease.'

*ū-* 'un-': ū-friðr 'war' ( friðr , peace), ū-happ 'misfortune' ( happ luck).

Endings

(a) Nouns

Personal

172. *-ingr*, *-ingi*, *-ing*: vīkingr 'pirate,' hǫfðingi 'chief,' kęrling 'old woman.'

Abstract

173. *-ð*, fem. with mutation: fęgrð 'beauty' ( fagr , fair), fęrð 'journey' ( fara , go), lęngð 'length' ( langr , long).

*-ing*, fem.: svipting 'pulling,' vīking 'piracy,' virðing 'honour.'

*-leikr*, masc.: kœr-leikr 'affection' ( hœrr , dear), skjōt-leikr 'speed' ( skjōtr , swift).

*-an*, *-un*, fem.: skipan 'arrangement,' skęmtun 'amusement.'

(b) Adjectives

174. *-ugr*: rāðugr 'sagacious,' þrūðugr 'strong.'

*-ōttr*: kollōttr 'bald,' ǫndōttr 'fierce.'

*-lauss* '-less': fē-lauss 'moneyless,' ōtta-lauss 'without fear.'

*-ligr* '-ly': undr-ligr 'wonderful,' sann-ligr 'probable' ( sannr , true).

*-samr*: līkn-samr 'gracious,' skyn-samr 'intelligent.'

*-verðr* '-ward': ofan-verðr 'upper.'

(c) Verbs

175. *-na*: brotna 'be broken' ( brotinn , broken), hvītna 'become white,' vakna 'awake.' Used to form intransitive and inchoative verbs of the third conj.

(d) Adverbs

176. *-liga* '-ly': undar-liga 'wonderfully,' stęrk-liga 'strongly' ( stęrkr , strong).

*-um*, dat. pl.: stōrum 'greatly' ( stōrr , great).

SYNTAX

177. Icelandic syntax greatly resembles Old English, but has several peculiarities of its own.

Concord

178. Concord is carried out very strictly in Icelandic: allir męnn vāru būnir 'all the men were ready,' allir vāru drepnir 'all were killed.'

179. A plural adj. or pronoun referring to two nouns of different (natural or grammatical) gender is always put in the neuter: þā gekk hann upp, ok með honum Loki (masc.), ok Þjālfi (masc.), ok Rǫskva (fem.). þā er þau (neut.) hǫfðu lītla hrið gęngit… 'he landed, and with him L., and Þ., and R. When they had walked for some time…'

Cases

180. The extensive use of the instrumental dative is very characteristic of Icelandic: whenever the direct object of a verb can be considered as the instrument of the action expressed by the verb, it is put in the dative, as in kasta spjōti 'throw a spear' (lit. 'throw with a spear'), hann helt hamarskaptinu 'he grasped the handle of the hammer,' heita þvī 'promise that,' jāta þvī 'agree to that.'

Adjectives

181. The weak form of adjectives is used as in O.E. after the definite article, þessi and other demonstratives. annarr (other) is always strong.

182., An adj. is often set in apposition to a following noun to denote part of it: eiga hālft dȳrit 'to have half of the animal,' ǫnnur þau 'the rest of them,' of miðja nātt 'in the middle of the night.'

Pronouns

183. sā is often put pleonastically before the definite article inn , both before and after the subst.: sā inn ungi maðr 'that young man,' hafit þat it djūpa 'the deep sea.'

184. The definite article is generally not expressed at all, or else einn , einnhvęrr is used.

185. A noun (often a proper name) is often put in apposition to a dual pron. of the first and second persons, or a plur. of the third person: þit fēlagar , 'thou and thy companions,' með þeim Āka 'with him and Āki.' Similarly stęndr Þōrr upp ok þeir fēlagar 'Thor and his companions get up.'

186. The plurals vēr , þēr are sometimes used instead of the singulars ek , þū , especially when a king is speaking or being spoken to.

187. sik and sēr are used in a strictly reflexive sense, referring back to the subject of the sentence, like se in Latin: Þorr bauð honum til matar með sēr 'Thor asked him to supper with him.'

Verbs

188. The tenses for which there is no inflection in the active, and all those of the passive, are formed by the auxiliaries skal (shall), hafa (have), vera (be) with the infin. and ptc. pret., much as in modern English.

189. The historical present is much used, often alternating abruptly with the preterite.

190. The middle voice is used: (1) in a purely reflexive sense: spara 'spare,' sparask 'spare oneself, reserve one's strength.' (2) intransitively: būa 'prepare,' būask 'become ready, be ready'; sętja 'set,' sętjask 'sit down'; sȳna 'show,' sȳnask 'appear, seem.' (3) reciprocally: bęrja 'strike,' bęrjask 'fight'; hitta , 'find,' hittask 'meet.' In other cases it specializes the meaning of the verb, often emphasizing the idea of energy or effort: koma 'come,' komask 'make one's way.'

191. The impersonal form of expression is widely used in Icelandic: rak ā storm (acc.) fyrir þeim 'a storm was driven in their face.'

192. The indef. 'one' is expressed in the same way by the third pers. sg., and this form of expression is often used when the subject is perfectly definite: ok freista skal þessar īþrōttar 'and this feat shall be tried (by you).'

193. The abrupt change from the indirect to the direct narration is very common: Haraldi konungi var sagt at þar var komit bjarndȳri, 'ok ā Īslęnzkr maðr,' 'King Harold was told that a bear had arrived, and that an Icelander owned it.' The direct narration is also used after at (that): hann svarar at 'ek skal rīða til Hęljar' 'he answers that he will ride to Hel.'